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The Awakenings

The Essence of Contemporary American Religion

Part Four or Nine

By Shlomo Phillips © 1989 (last updated February 26.2015)

The Awakenings

Return to Part One

The Third Great Awakening Begins

The Third Great Awakening occurred just prior to the onset of the First World War. It had a profound impact on American and global religion. As a direct result of this Awakening the future was fundamentally altered as a plethora of religious innovators appeared on the scene setting the stage for the religion of the Twentieth Century. This period was in some ways reminiscent of 1st centuries BCE and CE when Messianic fervor led to many Messianic claimants. Just as the first centuries BCE and CE failed to produce the yearned for Messiah, so too the Third Great Awakening. Just as the first centuries BCE and CE forever altered Judaism and the world, so too with the Third Great Great Awakening.

Some of these new religious leaders encouraged the best in humanity, some the worst. Whereas in the two previous Great Awakenings there had been a basic theological (Christian) consensus, in the Third few doctrines were accepted as sacrosanct. Everything was now being redefined, debated, and challenged.

McLoughlin maintains that this period did not begin until 1890 but most date it from the 1870's. The plethora of 'camp meetings' that erupted around 1857, McLoughlin argues, does not qualify as a true Awakening because of its limited impact. I will yield to his opinion here, however by 1875 there was clearly a major Awakening underway.

D.L. Moody and the Fundamentalists

Following the Second Great Awakening American Christianity had largely returned to a state of spiritual slumber. Those who were 'in the Church' generally remained in their pews while those outside remained outside in a state of mutual truce with them. Calvinism began making a slight comeback during this period. It was soothing to simply "trust God" without taking personal responsibility for ones salvation.

The monumental successes of D.L. Moody's revival meetings in the 1870's reflect the powerful birth of Missionary Christian Fundamentalism (DRP 421). Moody in fact has been called the first Christian Fundamentalist (RAR143). The Third Great Awakening was born among these people of faith (although it reached far beyond).

Like his Protestant forebears Moody's Fundamentalist teachings were based squarely on his literalist interpretations of the Bible ("God said it, I believe, that settles it!"). This remains the defining position of all Christian Fundamentalists. This conviction often includes the doctrine known as 'the Priesthood of all Believers' wherein Christian Fundamentalists are taught to read the Bible (often the King James Version only), to accept what it says literally, and to hold dogmatically to it. Being trained in Fundamentalist interpretation these Christians usually see what their sect believes with this process. Offering a different understanding often results is reject and condemnation rather than open discussion and study. They are not therefore actually biblically literalists.

Moody and his followers successfully created a transdenominational movement that continues to grow. His doctrinal world view is, in the minds of Christian Fundamentalists, "Mere Christianity" (note L). To reject this version of the religion is viewed as rejecting God Himself.

Dwight L. Moody (1837-1899) battled toe to toe with the intellectuals of his day. He rejected the rationalism of Das Aufklärung (the Enlightenment). He likewise opposed the mainline emotionalism and neo-Pagan spirit he saw within Romanticism and Modern Liberal Christian Theology with its so-called higher criticism of the Bible. Along with his long-time associate and song leader Ira David Sankey (August 28, 1840 - August 13, 1908), Moody condemned the doctrine of predestination, the cardinal teaching of the Calvinists. He also rejected the popular teaching of 'salvation by works' expressed by some segments of what we today would call the Religious Right. Moody also condemned the new Secular Humanist doctrine of evolution. He rejected the Enlightenment notion of essential human goodness returning, as he saw it, to the fundamental belief in the doctrine of Original Sin and the necessity of being 'born again' through 'the blood of Jesus' (RAR141-144).

From today's perspective it is difficult to appreciate how amazingly widespread the acceptance of his audience was to his views. Dwight L. Moody's teachings and the Bible institute he founded held a very important place in this Awakening. He led the way to Christian Fundamentalism as we know it today. to the near end of Calvinism, and to the zeal of missionary work.

William Miller

William Miller (1782 - 1849) was a charismatic American Baptist preacher. His spiritual descendants are sometimes known as Millerites. His Adventist teachings (i.e. focusing on the second 'advent' or coming of Jesus) of the 1830s and 40s were very influential later on. It is largely because of Miller's significant influence that I am inclined to date this Awakening back into the 1840's. His impact in the Third Great Awakening and beyond was profound. His humility in acknowledging some of his mistakes (mistakes that his followers continue making) was beyond admirable for a person in his position.

Among Miller's spiritual heirs are several major religious denominations and sects including the Seventh-day Adventists, Advent Christians, and the International Bible Students Association (aka Russellites, Jehovah's Christian Witnesses, Zion's Watchtower etc.) although the Russellites are a step removed from Reverend Miller.

Miller's early beliefs were a mixture of Baptist theology and Masonic Deism. Around 1815 Miller claimed to have experienced a spiritual realization while reading from the Bible at his local church. The War of 1812 had left him questioning the afterlife and the meaning of human existence. He was deeply troubled by the doctrine of eternal punishment and was seeking understanding. In my opinion, despite the pain caused by and through his movement, Miller was doubtless a sincere spiritual seeker who simply lacked the resources he needed and whose followers went well beyond what he intended.

Because of his believed revelation Miller became convinced that God had chosen to reveal His end time secrets to the world through him. As a result he undertook serious Bible study. Beginning at Genesis 1:1 and working his forward Miller determined what he believed the Bible said for himself and he began teaching his sometimes novel interpretations to others. He attracted quite a following with his end-time prophecies and unique doctrines. His teachings were unorthodox enough to convey the feeling of mysterious revealed truth, yet orthodox enough to not seem like abject heresy. To many it seemed like a good fit for the 'chosen nation' as it approached 1900. Many considered William Miller to be a special prophet, and the idea that through him America might yet become New Zion began to be heard again.

In time Miller left both his Baptist fellowship and his Masonic beliefs. He reportedly told a told Deist friend that, "If he would give me time I would harmonize all these apparent contradictions to my own satisfaction, or I will be a Deist still" (AD, p.17). Like so many others of this period Miller felt he needed to reinvent the wheel according to his own revelations.

In September of 1822 Miller prophesied, "I believe that the second coming of Jesus Christ is near, even at the door, even within twenty-one years, on or before 1843" (MWM, p. 79). The result of this pronouncement was like a whirlwind! Beginning in 1840 Millerism became a significant religious force in the US and one of the main 'prophets' of the Third Great Awakening.

Miller later narrowed the scope his widely popular Daniel 9 prophecy. He announced to his followers that Jesus Christ would definitely physically return to this earth, cleanse, purify, and take full possession of it, sometime between March 21, 1843 and March 21, 1844. There was no doubt about it he said.

When the date didn't pan out, a new date was 'revealed' to him: April 18, 1844. The final corrected date was set for seven months later, October 22, 1844. With this prophecy Adventist preacher Samuel S. Snow (1806 - 1890) established what was known as the Seventh-month movement to proclaim the final date of Jesus' advent. In defence of Miller Snow proposed that the delay had been the 'stripping away' of those Adventists who lacked faith in order to establish and strengthen the rest as the faithful remnant.

When Jesus again did not appear, October 22, 1844 came to be known as the Great Disappointment. To his credit Miller publicly admitted his errors (MWM 256) although he explained that his miscalculation had been based on imprecise biblical preservation and records rather than on his own research. Until his death on December 20, 1849 Miller fully expected his Lord's imminent return. The Millerites were understandably heart broken. The majority left the Adventist cause. Yet the Movement lived on!

Following the lead of Samuel Snow the Millerites sought God for understanding. What had happened? It was obvious Miller had been wrong, and yet his scriptural evidence seemed impeccable to them. Among those who continue to held to Miller's basic calculations are the Seventh-day Adventist Church with over 14 million members and growing, and the Advent Christian Church with around 61,000 members. Jehovah's Witnesses as well as many mainline Protestant sects continue to study Daniel 9, believing it hold the secret of Jesus' always imminent return.

For the Jews Daniel 9 was fulfilled long ago. For more on this see my study here.

Prophet Ellen White

Those who remained loyal to Miller's teachings and calculations had to come up with an answer for this catastrophic failure. And they did.

They explained that Miller's dates were indeed correct, however there had been a misunderstanding about the phrase "cleansing the sanctuary." Many of the remaining Millerites explained that in 1844 Jesus had in fact entered the Heavenly Sanctuary to begin his investigative judgment in preparation of the end. This is what Miller discovered and it did indeed happen (they claim)!

One problem with this explanation is that the Seventh Day Adventists, like all Fundamentalists, claim to be biblical literalists. This bizarre doctrine has no biblical support whatsoever! Indeed from a literal reading the teaching is pointed to by Jesus as a significant end time heresy! He warns:

Wherefore if they shall say unto you, Behold, he is in the desert; go not forth: behold, he is in the secret chambers; believe it not.... For as the lightning cometh out of the east, and shineth even unto the west; so shall also the coming of the Son of man be.... Matthew 24:26, 27
If Jesus is referring to himself here, which all Christians say he is, then he is not in a secret Heavenly Chamber.

The White's 'revelation' did solve certain organizational problems however and the Seventh Day Adventists and its offshoots (like the Branch Davidians) continue to teach it to this day. How long this investigative judgment will take is apparently anyone's guess... but the time is at hand! or so they continue to declare. This odd doctrine may be attributed largely to James White, husband of 'Prophet Ellen White'.

As the Whites and others continued reinterpreting their founder, Adventists like Joseph Bates 'discovered' that Christians, like Jews, are commanded to honor the biblical Sabbath (or Shabbat/Shabbos). In part to recast the movement as more than a (failed) single issue sect, Sabbath Observance became an important Adventist teaching. For more information on the Shabbat, apart from Seventh Day Adventist teachings, consider my Shabbat study.

The Seventh day Adventist denomination was officially established in 1863. They believe themselves to be the "Remnant Church" of biblical prophecy (Revelation 12:17) and that Ellen White held the "Spirit of Prophecy" in a unique way that surpassed even William Miller (who doubted his revelation). Their 28 Fundamental Beliefs state that "[Ms. White's] writings are a continuing and authoritative source of truth which provide for the church comfort, guidance, instruction, and correction." Her teachings therefore are deemed essential for understanding the Bible, which is considered the final authority.

Like Jehovah's Christian Witnesses and other Third Great Awakening movements, the SDA believes that prior to taking human birth Jesus was the archangel Michael. Most Christians consider this idea blasphemous and don't know this is what they believe. Like other Millerites, the SDA originally accepted a basic Arian theology. As we discussed above Bishop Arius (250 or 256 - 336 CE) maintained that Jesus was fully human and not at all divine. Like Judaism (and the Bible) Arianism maintained a strictly monotheistic theology. There is but one indivisible eternal God. Where Jesus fits into this equation varies with the group but he was not viewed as God nor as part of a trinity according to most Millerites and originally according to the White's.

As Millerism declined and SDA missionary work and influence increased, the Seventh Day Adventists began courting acceptance from greater Christendom. At the time most Christians considered SDA to be a cult. Like most Christian Fundamentalists, doctrinally SDA views Catholicism as an abomination. SDA stresses this view more adamantly than most. They wanted to be accepted into mainstream American religious life and were willing to negotiate their doctrine to achieve this goal. SDA would have to embrace the deity of Jesus.

Most Christians then and now believe as a primary article of faith that if one does not accept Jesus as God incarnate one is by definition not a Christian. So the SDA disregarded the Bible and amended their views. However what they now believe goes well beyond what even Constantine dared to hope for!

Most Christians will tell you that they are monotheists, that they believe in only One God. They see Jesus as part of a godhead, consisting of one God in three persons. This is not biblical monotheism, but it is not classic pantheism either. The SDA doctrine is so far removed from both Christianity and biblical religion that it bears considering. Here's an e-mail snippet from a recent conversation I had on this subject with an respected SDA pastor who oddly asked not to be identified:

Unlike most Christians, Seventh Day Adventists are literal polytheists. They believe in and worship three separate gods. Not in the historic (and unbiblical) Trinity sense, believed by most Christians, but in three literal separate gods. Whether these three gods are in 'accord' or they are still three distinct god. That is polytheism.

While most Christians embrace the belief in One God Who mysteriously eternally manifests in three forms (as Father, Son and Holy Spirit), the Adventists are literal polytheists and they worship Michael the Archangel who they believe was also God (i.e. Jesus).

Unlike the Seventh Day Adventists, Jehovah's Witnesses and several of the other Millerite sects maintain Arian beliefs and reject the belief that God incarnated as a man. Doctrinally these groups are closer to Judaism and biblical religion than most other Christian sects (this is not an endorsement).

Charles Taze Russell, International Bible Students, and Jehovah's Christian Witnesses

Charles Taze Russell (February 16, 1852 - October 31, 1916) was a deeply religious man from his earliest years. As a child he attended services at the local Presbyterian Church. At thirteen he joined a Congregational Church. By age sixteen he was a committed and dissatisfied religious seeker. He could not accept what he was being taught from the Christian pulpits. By his mid-teens he was studying Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism, and Hinduism, but his cursory studies convinced him that these too were unsatisfactory.

At eighteen years of age Russell attended an Adventist meeting held by Jonas Wendell (1815 - 1873) and enthusiastically embraced the 1874 date for the "rapture of the Church." Russell's faith in Christianity had been restored. He delved deeply into the teachings of William Miller and his associates and like so many he was excited about the promised soon advent.

In 1876 Russell read the influential Adventist writer and publisher Nelson H. Barbour's (1824-1908) Herald of the Morning and believed he had finally found true Christianity. His restored faith convinced him that in 1878 Jesus would return and rapture his true Church away from the earth, and conduct a thousand year global devastation in preparation for the coming Messianic kingdom (the Adventist doctrine on the thousand years following Armageddon is different from most Christian interpretations and less makes less sense in my opinion). Like so many others, Russell sold all of his belongings and donated the money to Barbour to help spread the word. He was now a committed Adventist.

That same year Russell began to write. His first published work seems to have been The Object and Manner of our Lord's Return. Inspired by Adventist prophecy Russell became dedicated to its promulgation. He was a missionary at heart.

In time Russell and Barbour parted ways both physically and spiritually. Russell stopped supporting Barbour and began publishing his own teachings under the title Studies in the Scriptures (SiS). Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence was first issued in July of 1879 (note 26). Russell continued his ministry and Barbour formed "The Church of the Strangers" that same year. Barbour continued to publish the Herald of the Morning.

Based on his own studies of Daniel 9 and other texts Russell's unique Arian doctrines found followers from within the Adventist movement and beyond. His initial views centered around the Adventist (Millerite) belief that the world ("the present evil system of things") was destined to end, but on or around October 1, 1914. He offered support for this belief with Milleresque interpretations of the Bible and his own mystical analysis of the Great Pyramid of Giza. He believe that the mysteries of the universe had been hidden in the pyramids of Egypt.

In 1881 Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society was founded as the vehicle for Russell's teachings and in 1884 the organization was legally chartered. There were now hundreds of "Russellites" spreading his teachings and Russell came to be known as "the Pastor."

As his fame spread the Pastor began receiving global recognition, accolades... and of course condemnation. His critics complained that much of what he was teaching was heretical. Chief among these was his belief in Arianism, the denial of Jesus' divinity (one of the things he had gotten right!). Not only was Jesus not to be accepted as the Third Person of a Trinity, Russell was teaching that he was not God at all, and that in fact he was the physical manifestation of the archangel Michael! While many Millerites believed this, most Americans did know it. Because of Russell's denial of the Trinity and his belief in Jesus as Michael, his detractors had ammo to use in their battle again him. To his credit, the Pastor never wavered in his beliefs.

Major events did happen in 1914, not the least of which was the onset of the First World War, but when 1914 passed without the Advent occurring, a viable answer was needed.

The WatchTower Society explained that Jesus had indeed returned to the earth in 1914 as foretold! His Advent had just been invisible (BF 457,458). While the SDA still had Jesus secluded in Heaven, the Witnesses had him on earth, living invisibly in a New York sky scrapper!

In a move all too reminiscent of the SDA's investigative judgment justification, the Watch Tower Society claimed that on the way to Earth Jesus had been forced to battle Satan. Good news though, Jesus had won and bound Satan to the earth lest he escape God's wrath (based on Luke 10:18). The bad news was that the battle between Jesus and Satan had been so intense that it had caused the First World War! "Obviously" the Watchtower Society (i.e. the true Jews) had triumphed; the War to End all Wars marked the event.

The Last days had now formally begun. The still invisible Jesus was now living in the Watch Tower headquarters awaiting the time set by God for Armageddon.

According to Zion's Watchtower, Jesus had indeed returned to the earth in 1914 just as the Pastor said. He had merely done so invisibly so as to prepare for his work of global restoration. Russell's end time followers, composed of 144,000 'faithful and discrete servants', were granted additional time to preach his message "unto the ends of the earth" (Matthew 24:14). All the wars, natural disasters and bloodshed that have occurred since 1914 are those prophesied by the Bible in Matthew 24 and elsewhere. Russell's prophecy and the explanation of its apparent failure may seem far fetched at first, but when you consider his sources and rationale, coupled with the apocalyptic excitement of the day, it is understandable how millions of people, including the mother of Dwight D. Eisenhower, came to accept his predictions and interpretations and to commit their lives to their promulgation.

Pastor Russell died on October 31, 1916 aboard a train from apparently natural causes. In January 1917, Judge Joseph Franklin Rutherford became the new leader of the WatchTower Society. Almost at once, Judge Rutherford began altering Russell's teachings and major controversies arose within the Society. Among the teachings the Judge rejected was Russell's use of Pyramidology (note 27). As early as 1918 there were dissenting voices being heard within the Society. Soon around 3/4 of the congregations had rejected the Judge's reforms, but he held firm as the anointed leader of the sect.

The Judge's rejection of Russell's personal role in the restoration of "the Truth" in February 1927, and his rejection of the Great Pyramid beliefs in November 1928, resulted in an irreparable split within the group. In 1931 the Bible Students who remained loyal to the Judge's reforms adopted a new name: Jehovah's Christian Witnesses. Soon they changed the name of their society to the International Watchtower Bible and Tract Society (International Bible Students Association of Jehovah's Christian Witnesses) (W). The Judge changed the congregational structure from independent study halls of autocephalic communities to a highly structured hierarchy run by Society appointed elders. These elders were pronounced to the "faithful and discrete servant class" of which he, as president, was head.

Unlike the SDA neither Russell nor Rutherford were viewed as prophets. Revelation was found in the research of the faithful and discrete servant class. This remains the case still.

While there are still some Russellite Bible Students groups such as the Dawn Bible Students Association, the organization restructured by Judge Rutherford remains the primary successor of Charles Taze Russell.

While there were differences, like Samuel S. Snow, Ellen White and others, Russell was essentially a Millerite Adventist who carried the teachings in a new yet logical direction.

The Awakenings

Return to: Part 1

Continue with: Part 5
Bibliography and Resources

NOTES

  • Note L: "Mere Christianity" is a widely celebrated book on Christian theology by C. S. Lewis. It was adapted from a series of BBC radio talks made between 1942 and 1944 while the author was at Oxford. The concepts he presents however were born during the Third Great Awakening. The impact of this Awakening continue to reverberate throughout Christendom. return
  • Note 26:Today known as The Watchtower. A companion magazine called Awake! is also published. return
  • Note 27: By the insistence of the Society's second president, Judge Rutherford. return
    Be the Blessing you were created to be
    and
    Don't let the perfect defeat the good